Vol. 14 No. 2 (2021): Spring 2021
Articles

Friend or Foe: Explaining the Duterte Administration's China Policy in the South China Sea

PDF
  • Brenda Tan
A moored boat, village in background.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37513/ciar.v14i2.616

Published 2021-07-12

How to Cite

Tan, B. (2021). Friend or Foe: Explaining the Duterte Administration’s China Policy in the South China Sea. Cornell International Affairs Review, 14(2), 9–51. https://doi.org/10.37513/ciar.v14i2.616
Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Abstract

No abstract available.

PDF

References

  1. "2017-2022 National Security Policy for Change and Well-Being of the Filipino People." Document. Republic of the Philippines National Security Council (April 2017): 1-32. https://itms.pnp.gov.ph/main/storage/2020/06/NSP-2017-2022.pdf
  2. Alan Chong, "Small State Soft Power Strategies: Virtual Enlargement in the Cases of the Vatican City State and Singapore." Cambridge Review of International Affairs 23.3 (2010): 383-405. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2010.484048 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09557571.2010.484048
  3. American Foreign Policy: 1950-1955. Vol. 1. In General Foreign Policy Series 117, Publication 6446. Washington DC: US Department of State, 1957.
  4. An Act Revising Republic Act No. 708 As Amended, Rep. Act No. 7157, ß3 (September 19, 1991) (Phil.). https://lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1991/ra_7157_1991.html
  5. Baviera, Aileen. "President Duterte's Foreign Policy Challenges." Contemporary Southeast Asia 38.2 (2016): 202-208. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24916629
  6. Baviera, Aileen. "The Influence of Domestic Politics on Philippine Foreign Policy: The Case of Philippines-China Relations since 2004." Working paper. S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Nanyang Technological University. In RSIS Working Papers 241 (2012): 1-36. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/rsis-pubs/WP241.pdf
  7. Brummer, Klaus, and Cameron Thies. ìActive Independent or Faithful Ally? The Domestic Contestation of National Role Conceptions in Australia After World War II.îIn Domestic Role Contestation, Foreign Policy, and International Relations. Edited by Christian Cantir and Juliet Kaarbo. New York, NY: Routledge, 2016.
  8. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315623580
  9. Brummer, Klaus, and Cameron Thies. "The Contested Selection of National Role Conceptions." Foreign Policy Analysis 11.3 (2015): 273-293. https://doi.org/10.1111/fpa.12045 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/fpa.12045
  10. Breuning, Marijike. "Contesting Belgium's Role in Development Cooperation." In Domestic Role Contestation, Foreign Policy, and International Relations. Edited by Christian Cantir and Juliet Kaarbo. New York, NY: Routledge, 2016.
  11. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315623580
  12. Cabacungan, Gil C. "From 3 to 300, PDP-Laban Forms 'Supermajority' in House." Philippine Daily Inquirer. May 26, 2016. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/787547/from-3-to-300-pdp-laban-forms-supermajority-in-house
  13. Cantir, Christian, and Juliet Kaarbo, eds. Domestic Role Contestation, Foreign Policy, and International Relations. New York, NY: Routledge, 2016.
  14. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315623580
  15. Cayetano, Alan P. "A Conversation with Alan Peter Cayetano." Speech. Council on Foreign Relations. October 2, 2017. https://www.cfr.org/event/conversation-alan-peter-cayetano
  16. Chafetz, Glenn, Hillel Abramson, and Suzette Grillot. "Role Theory and Foreign Policy: Belarussian and Ukrainian Compliance With the Nuclear Nonproliferation Regime." Political Psychology 17.4 (1996): 727-757. https://doi.org/10.2307/3792136 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3792136
  17. Chang, Felix. "Comparative Southeast Asian Military Modernization." ASAN Forum. October 1, 2014. http://www.theasanforum.org/comparative-southeast-asian-military-modernization-1/
  18. Chiang, Jeremy. "Philippine Foreign Policy in the 21st Century: The Influence of Double-Asymmetric Structure." Conference paper. ISA International Conference 2017 (Hong Kong, CHN). International Studies Association. June 15-17, 2017. http://web.isanet.org/Web/Conferences/HKU2017-s/Archive/e35950e1-db89-4726-b72e-671a86b59ca3.pdf
  19. Chinese Embassy Manila, "Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesperson's Remarks on China-Filipino Fishing Vessels Collision Incident." Text post with image. Facebook. June 17, 2019, 9:49pm EST. https://www.facebook.com/ChinaEmbassyManila/photos/a.916511061879302/1055807334616340/
  20. Cook, Malcolm. "The Duterte Administration's China Tensions." Report. ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. In ISEAS Perspective 62 (2019): 1-8. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2019_62.pdf
  21. Cook, Malcolm. "The Philippines' Alliance Problems with the USA." Report. ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute. In ISEAS Perspective 48 (2019): 1-7. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/ISEAS_Perspective_2019_48.pdf
  22. de Castro, Renato C. "Explaining the Duterte Administration's Appeasement Policy on China: The Power of Fear." Asian Affairs: An American Review 45.3-4 (2019): 165-191. https://doi.org/10.1080/00927678.2019.1589664 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00927678.2019.1589664
  23. de Castro, Renato C. "The Duterte Administration's Appeasement Policy on China and the Crisis in the Philippine-US Alliance." Philippine Political Science Journal 38.3 (2017): 159-181.https://doi.org/10.1080/01154451.2017.1412161 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01154451.2017.1412161
  24. de Castro, Renato C. "Twenty-First Century Philippines' Policy Toward an Emergent China: From Equi-Balancing to Strategic Balancing." Asian Politics & Policy 8.2 (2016): 305-328. https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12249 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12249
  25. Demick, Barbara, and Tracy Wilkinson. "Philippine President Duterte: 'I Announce My Separation from the United States.'" Los Angeles Times. October 20, 2016. https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-philippines-us-20161020-snap-story.html
  26. "Department of National Defense: Citizen's Charter." Document. Republic of the Philippines, 2nd ed (2020): 1-60. https://www.dnd.gov.ph/FilesUploaded/Ckeditor/file/UPDATED_CITIZEN_CHARTER-4.pdf
  27. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "Arrival Statement and Press Conference of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte Following His Official Visit to the Russian Federation." Speech. October 6, 2019. https://pcoo.gov.ph/presidential-speech/arrival-statement-and-press-conference-of-president-rodrigo-roa-duterte-following-his-official-visit-to-the-russian-federation/
  28. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "Departure Speech of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte." Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. September 5, 2016. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2016/09/05/departure-speech-of-president-rodrigo-roa-duterte-sept-5-2016/
  29. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "First State of the Nation Address." Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. July 25, 2016. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2016/07/25/rodrigo-roa-duterte-first-state-of-the-nation-address-july-25-2016/
  30. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "Joint Press Statement of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte." Speech. October 18, 2019. https://pcoo.gov.ph/presidential-speech/joint-press-statement-of-president-rodrigo-roa-duterte/
  31. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "President Rodrigo Roa Duterte During the Commemoration of the National Heroes Day." Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. August 26, 2016. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2016/08/29/speech-president-rodrigo-roa-duterte-during-the-commemoration-of-the-national-heroes-day/
  32. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "Second State of the Nation Address." Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. July 24, 2017. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2017/07/24/rodrigo-roa-duterte-second-state-of-the-nation-address-july-24-2017/
  33. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "Speech of President Rodrigo Roa Duterte at the Plenary Session of the Forum of the Valdai International Discussion Club in Russia." Speech. October 3, 2019. https://dfa.gov.ph/dfa-news/statements-and-advisoriesupdate/24566-speech-of-president-rodrigo-roa-duterte-at-the-plenary-session-of-the-forum-of-the-valdai-international-discussion-club-in-russia
  34. Duterte, Rodrigo R. "Third State of the Nation Address." Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. July 23, 2018. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2018/07/23/rodrigo-roa-duterte-third-state-of-the-nation-address-july-23-2018/
  35. Elemia, Camille. "The Many Times Duterte and His Cabinet Contradicted Each Other." Rappler. June 20, 2018. http://www.rappler.com/nation/205028-issues-duterte-and-cabinet-members-contradicted-each-other
  36. Esmaquel, Paterno, II. "China Chopper Harasses PH Rubber Boat in Ayungin Shoal - Lawmaker." Rappler. May 30, 2018. http://www.rappler.com/nation/203720-chinese-helicopter-harass-rubber-boat-ayungin-shoal-spratly-islands
  37. Esmaquel, Paterno, II. "Locsin Hits 'Collision' of Philippine, Chinese Vessels." Rappler. June 12, 2019. https://www.rappler.com/nation/dfa-reaction-chinese-vessel-sinks-filipino-boat
  38. Fonbuena, Carmela. "Duterte's Pivot to China Won't Be Easy for Americanized AFP." Rappler. September 30, 2016. http://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/in-depth/147783-duterte-pivot-china-military-war-games
  39. Fonbuena, Carmela. "PH Military Encourages Fishermen to Return to Scarborough." Rappler. April 25, 2018. http://www.rappler.com/nation/201069-nolcom-maritime-forum-lingayen
  40. Gloria, Glenda M. "Where Does the Military Stand with Duterte?" Rappler. April 16, 2017. http://www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/166768-military-stand-duterte-commander-in-chief
  41. GMA News. "LIVESTREAM: FYI with Richard Javad Heydarian: Exclusive interview with Defense Secretary Delfin Lorenzana, Face-to-Face." Video. Youtube. May 28, 2019. 52:56. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2fHZ1f0x0A
  42. Gonzalez, Mia. "Duterte Agrees to Joint Probe of Recto Bank Incident." Rappler. June 22, 2019. http://www.rappler.com/nation/233647-duterte-agrees-philippines-china-investigation-recto-bank-incident
  43. Gutierrez, Natashya. "PH, US: Military Ties Remain Strong, Fighting ISIS Together." Rappler. June 4, 2017. http://www.rappler.com/nation/171929-us-ph-military-ties-fighting-isis
  44. Harnisch, Sebastian. Cornelia Frank, and Hanns W. Maull, eds. Role Theory in International Relations: Approaches and Analyses. New York, NY: Routledge, 2011.
  45. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203818756 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203818756
  46. Heydarian, Richard J. "Duterte Shrugs off Reed Bank Incident to Defend His China Policy in Speech." South China Morning Post. July 27, 2019. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3020140/defiant-rodrigo-duterte-shrugs-reed-bank-incident-defend-his
  47. Heydarian, Richard J. "Duterte's Game in Beijing." Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative. August 29, 2019. https://amti.csis.org/dutertes-game-in-beijing/
  48. Heydarian, Richard J. "Why China's "Militarisation" of the South China Sea Needs a Review by the Philippines-US Alliance." South China Morning Post. July 20, 2019. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3019060/why-chinas-militiasation-south-china-sea-needs-review
  49. Heydarian, Richard J."The Golden Era of Japan-Philippine Relations Has Arrived." National Interest. June 16, 2019. https://nationalinterest.org/feature/golden-era-japan-philippine-relations-has-arrived-62572
  50. Heydarian, Richard J. "The Reed Bank Crisis: A Call for Upgrading the Philippine-US Alliance." July 10, 2019. https://amti.csis.org/the-reed-bank-crisis-a-call-for-upgrading-the-philippine-u-s-alliance/
  51. Heydarian, Richard J. "Tragedy of Small Power Politics: Duterte and the Shifting Sands of Philippine Foreign Policy." Asian Security 13.3 (2017): 220-236. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2017.1354569 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2017.1354569
  52. Hirata, Keiko. "Role Theory and Japanese Security Policy." In Domestic Role Contestation, Foreign Policy, and International Relations. Edited by Christian Cantir and Juliet Kaarbo. New York, NY: Routledge, 2016.
  53. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315623580 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315623580
  54. Holsti, Kalevi J. "National Role Conceptions in the Study of Foreign Policy." International Studies Quarterly 14.3 (1970): 233-309. https://doi.org/10.2307/3013584 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3013584
  55. Huang, Chiung-Chiu. "Interpreting Vietnam's China Policy from the Perspective of Role Theory: Independent Role Versus Interactive Role." International Relations 34.4 (2020): 524-543. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117820904602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047117820904602
  56. Hudson, Valerie M. "Foreign Policy Analysis: Actor-Specific Theory and the Ground of International Relations." Foreign Policy Analysis 1.1 (2005): 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2005.00001.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1743-8594.2005.00001.x
  57. Ibarra, Edcel J. "Is There Judicial Independence in Duterte's Philippines?" Democratic Erosion. December 2, 2019. https://www.democratic-erosion.com/2019/12/02/is-there-judicial-independence-in-dutertes-philippines/
  58. Ifantis, Kostas, Dimitrios Triantaphyllou, and Andreas Kotelis. "National Role and Foreign Policy: An Exploratory Study of Greek Elites' Perceptions towards Turkey." Report. Hellenic Observatory, London School of Economics European Institute. In GreeSE Papers 94 (2015): 1-34. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/63265
  59. Kaarbo, Juliet. "Foreign Policy Analysis in the Twenty-First Century: Back to Comparison, Forward to Identity and Ideas." International Studies Review 5.2 (2003): 159, https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.5020012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1521-9488.5020012
  60. Kaarbo, Juliet, and Cristian Cantir, "Role Conflict in Recent Wars: Danish and Dutch Debates over Iraq and Afghanistan." Cooperation and Conflict 48.4 (2013): 465-483. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836713482815 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836713482815
  61. Kovind, Ram N. "Joint Press Statement of President of the Republic of India Ram Nath Kovind." Speech. October 18, 2019. https://pcoo.gov.ph/presidential-speech/joint-press-statement-of-president-of-the-republic-of-india-ram-nath-kovind/
  62. "Locsin Tells DFA Personnel: I Am Fortunate and Humbled to Serve With the Best in the Government." Republic of the Philippines. Department of Foreign Affairs. October 31, 2018. https://dfa.gov.ph/dfa-news/dfa-releasesupdate/18385-locsin-tells-dfa-personnel-i-am-fortunate-and-humbled-to-serve-with-the-best-in-the-government
  63. Locsin, Teddy, Jr. "China-PH relations consists of anything and everything that transpiresÖ" Text post. Twitter. June 15, 2019, 6:01am EST. https://twitter.com/teddyboylocsin/status/1139835369124294658
  64. Locsin, Teodoro, Jr. "Friend to Friends, Enemy to Enemies, Worse Enemy to False Friends." Business Mirror. October 16, 2019. https://businessmirror.com.ph/2019/10/16/friend-to-friends-enemy-to-enemies-worse-enemy-to-false-friends/
  65. Maass, Matthias. Small States in World Politics: The Story of Small State Survival, 1648-2016. Manchester, GBR: Manchester University Press, 2017.
  66. https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719082733.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719082733.001.0001
  67. Maitem, Jeoffrey. "Philippine Defence Chief Urges 'Diplomatic Protest' After Chinese Vessel Sinks Fishing Boat in Disputed Waters." South China Morning Post. June 12, 2019. https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3014237/philippines-slams-suspected-chinese-vessel-sinking-fishing
  68. Manantan, Mark B.F. "Pivot Toward China: A Critical Analysis of the Philippines' Policy Shift on the South China Sea Disputes." Asian Politics & Policy 11.4 (2019): 643-662. https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12498 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12498
  69. Mangosing, Frances. "Philippines, US Plan Bigger Joint Army Exercises in 2020." Inquirer. May 8, 2019. https://globalnation.inquirer.net/175192/philippines-us-plan-bigger-joint-army-exercises-in-2020
  70. Mangosing, Frances. "Ramming an Anchored Boat 'Not Normal Maritime Incident'-PH Navy Chief." Inquirer. June 14, 2019. https://globalnation.inquirer.net/176324/ramming-an-anchored-boat-not-normal-maritime-accident-ph-navy-chief
  71. "Manila's Pivot to Pragmatism on the South China Sea." Editorial. East Asia Forum. August 14, 2017. https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/08/14/manilas-pivot-to-pragmatism-on-the-south-china-sea/
  72. Medeiros, Evan, Keith Crane, and Eric Heginbotham et al. Pacific Currents: The Responses of U.S. Allies and Security Partners in East Asia to China's Rise. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2008. https://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG736.html
  73. https://doi.org/10.7249/MG736 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7249/MG736
  74. Mendez, Christina. "Duterte OKs Joint Probe on Fish Boat Sinking." Philstar. June 23, 2019. https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/06/23/1928762/duterte-oks-joint-probe-fish-boat-sinking
  75. Murphy, Ann M. "Great Power Rivalries, Domestic Politics and Southeast Asian Foreign Policy: Exploring the Linkages." Asian Security 13.3 (2017): 165-182. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2017.1354566 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2017.1354566
  76. "National Security Strategy: Security and Development for Transformational Change and Well-Being of the Filipino People." Document. Republic of the Philippines National Security Council (May 2018): 1-106. https://apcss.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Philippines-National_Security_Strategy_2018.pdf
  77. Nepomuceno, Priam. "'Balikatan 2019,' Tribute to PH, US WW2 Veterans." Philippine News Agency. April 4, 2019. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1066461
  78. Nepomuceno, Priam. "'Balikatan,' A Venue for PH to Demo Best Military Assets." Philippine News Agency. May 18, 2018. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1035693
  79. Nepomuceno, Priam. "'Balikatan' Evolving through the Years." Philippine News Agency. May 7, 2018. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1034398
  80. Nepomuceno, Priam. "'Balikatan' Highlights Historic PH-US Military Ties." Philippine News Agency. April 1, 2019. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1066156
  81. Nepomuceno, Priam. "Annual Military Exercises Enhance PH Security." Philippine News Agency. May 8, 2018. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1034523
  82. Nepomuceno, Priam. "More PH-US Military Cooperation in 2019." Philippine News Agency. September 28, 2018. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1049399
  83. Nepomuceno, Priam. "Navy Admiral's Visit Reaffirms Strong US-PH Alliance." Philippine News Agency. October 29, 2018. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1052450
  84. Nepomuceno, Priam. "PH Troops Told to Learn Everything from 'Balikatan' Allies." Philippine News Agency. May 8, 2018. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1034503
  85. Nepomuceno, Priam. "US Still PH's Major Ally in Defense Build-up: DND." Philippine News Agency. February 7, 2019. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1061245
  86. Nian-chung Chang Liao. "Winds of Change: Assessing China's Assertive Turn in Foreign Policy." Journal of Asian and African Studies 53.6 (2018): 880-895. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618762477 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618762477
  87. Orendain, Simone. "Philippine-US Military Exercises Begin With Greater Regional Presence." Voice of America. April 4, 2016. https://www.voanews.com/east-asia-pacific/philippine-us-military-exercises-begin-greater-regional-presence
  88. "PAF to Boost Its Airlift Capability; Formally Accepts the Second and Last C-130T Aircraft from the US." Website. Philippine Air Force. May 7, 2018. https://www.paf.mil.ph/news-articles/paf-boost-its-airlift-capability-formally-accepts-second-and-last-c-130t-aircraft-us
  89. Pazzibugan, Dona Z. "Locsin Refutes Palace, Says PH Did Not Accept Chinese Apology." Philippine Daily Inquirer. August 30, 2019. https://globalnation.inquirer.net/179472/locsin-refutes-palace-says-ph-did-not-accept-chinese-apology
  90. "Philippine Military Says Defence Relations with US 'Rock Solid.'" Straits Times. September 13, 2016. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/philippine-military-says-defence-relations-with-us-rock-solid
  91. Pimentel v. Romulo, G.R. No. 158088, 501 Phil. 303 (S.C., July 6, 2005). https://elibrary.judiciary.gov.ph/thebookshelf/showdocs/1/42912
  92. Ramos, Christia M. "US Stands by Obligations to PH Under MDT-Envoy." Inquirer. July 4, 2019. https://globalnation.inquirer.net/177458/us-stands-by-obligations-to-ph-under-mdt-envoy
  93. Ranada, Pia. "Duterte Skirts PH Sovereign Rights in Recto Bank." Rappler. June 21, 2017. https://www.rappler.com/nation/duterte-skirts-philippines-sovereign-rights-recto-bank
  94. Ranada, Pia. "Duterte: No Denying It, PH Soldiers Are Pro-US." Rappler. June 12, 2017. https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/inside-track/172687-duterte-philippine-soldiers-pro-united-states
  95. Ranada, Pia. "If Duterte Remark Is 'Illogical,' He's Joking-Panelo." Rappler. April 12, 2018. http://www.rappler.com/nation/218169-panelo-says-if-duterte-remark-illogical-joking
  96. Ranada, Pia "To Prove Fruits of PH-China 'Friendship,' Roque Brings Fishermen to Press Briefing." Rappler. June 11, 2018. http://www.rappler.com/nation/204647-harry-roque-zambales-fishermen-china-coast-guard-scarborough-shoal
  97. Rocamora, Joyce A.L. "Locsin Reports Collision of Filipino, Chinese Vessels to UN." Philippine News Agency. June 18, 2019. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1072590
  98. Rocamora, Joyce A.L.. "Protect Life at Sea, PH Asks IMO States After Reed Bank Incident." Philippine News Agency. June 16, 2019. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1072458
  99. Rose-Ackerman, Susan, Diane Desierto and Natalia Volosin, "Leveraging Presidential Power: Separation of Powers without Checks and Balances in Argentina and the Philippines." Faculty Scholarship Series 31, (2010): 1-57. http://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/31
  100. Santos, Eimor P. "Scrapping Mutual Defense Treaty With U.S. An Option-Lorenzana." CNN (Philippines edition). December 28, 2018. https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2018/12/28/Mutual-Defense-Treaty-with-U.S.-review.html
  101. Santos, Vergel O. "The Philippines Just Became More Authoritarian, Thanks to the People." New York Times. May 24, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/24/opinion/philippines-duterte-election-senate.html
  102. Stryker, Sheldon, and Anne Statham. "Symbolic Interaction and Role Theory." In The Handbook of Social Psychology, ed. Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson. New York, NY: Random House, 1985.
  103. Tran, Thi Bich. "Personalising the Philippines' China Policy: Where Individuals Matter." Working paper. Afrasian Research Centre, Ryukoku University. In Studies on Multicultural Societies 36 (2018): 1-17. https://afrasia.ryukoku.ac.jp/phase3/english/news/59ea9d51367bcf5ecf9573ba35529067e4b6f833.pdf
  104. Trinidad, Dennis D. "Domestic Factors and Strategic Partnership: Redefining Philippines-Japan Relations in the 21st Century." Asian Politics & Policy 9.4 (2017): 613-635. https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12352 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/aspp.12352
  105. "U.S. and Philippine Forces Come Together for the Opening Ceremony of Balikatan 2019." U.S. Embassy in the Philippines. April 2, 2019. https://ph.usembassy.gov/us-and-philippine-forces-come-together-for-the-opening-ceremony-of-balikatan-2019/
  106. "US Army Alaska Deputy Commanding General Visits HPA." Philippine Army. September 23, 2019. https://www.army.mil.ph/home/index.php/press-releases-2/513-us-army-alaska-deputy-commanding-general-visits-hpa
  107. Vibar, Ivy J. "Locsin: US Remains Philippines' True Friend, Natural Ally." ABS-CBN. July 3, 2019. https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/07/03/19/locsin-us-remains-philippines-true-friend-natural-ally